The Rise of “Mass Society” In the U.S

Mass Society is a social theory that evolved during the 20th century in the modern society, and it was associated with the industrialization process which became rampart due technology advancement. Since social order is unavoidable, the mass society is created through herding people into organizations. The 20th century has led to varied transformation in the political, economic and social structures, as well as in communication system  (Findley and John 2011, 18).  The mass society led to prosperity and a system of government, which weakened the tradition societal tie. The first two decades of the 20th century was the time of intense and rapid changes that stretched to the capacity of imagination. This is because of increased technology advancement; contributing to varied developments in the arts and many other aspects. Thus, the essay focuses on the major developments that took place due to modernity in the first two decades of the 20th century.

The mass society led to major developments in varied aspects including arts and cultural aspects. The science and technologies grew rapidly in pervasiveness, scale and time; thus transformed the natural world into created human control. For instance, many artists started implementing unique artifacts including unique interior and exterior of the buildings, renaissance paintings  and many others. The technology that comprised this new era included computer technology that enabled the society to make varied changes through interaction process. For instance, the Internet and social media services enabled the societies to culiturally interact and learn one another’s cultural behaviors through a common sharing of language; thus creating a global village.  Duiker and Jackson (2011, 86) argue that the two decades of 20th century saw their tasks through making sense of the great transformation and understanding the new culture and societies being created.

Modernity refers to the Enlightenment period and movement from traditional to modern era, which is linked to the increased capitalism in the society. The term modernity in the Enlighten era reflected varied changes that took place including new construction of buildings, new way of painting artifacts including sculptures and many others. Modernity reflected the new wave from the traditional aspects to new era, which is associated with movement in arts, cultural movements and other varied transformations to western society.  Radcliff (2004, 92) argues that modernity in the 20th century reflects new movements and transformation of varied things from traditional to current ones. The term can be coined with westernization to include changes and progression era from traditional to current due to influence from the westerners. 

Additionally, modernity is viewed from cultural changes in social, political and economic structures. However, scholars focus this term from a far perspective to include changes in modern science, arts and many other aspects. Modernity demands deeper and more radical changes in order to create a better world. According to  Rosati (2013, 56) and Scott, modernity takes place through rapid rationalization, which is linked to actions of mankind to create resourceful order of means to meet their demanding desires. Therefore, modernity in the 20th century period took into consideration significant changes in the society such as new political power, social changes and economic changes. This was aided by industrialization period that was rampart due to increased technological advancement; thus innovation became the primary fact of life.

Naturalism and realism are the responses from Romanticism but they are not comparable to it in influence. Realism became dominant in literature in the U.S during the earlier 20th century. Realism attempts to present things they way they are; hence it tries to reveal the truth of things. For instance in art, realism approach was manifested in numerous ways; thus it was mostly used to describe certain art objects. The term implies a criticism of social conditions and also tends to reveal the fiction from non-fiction aspects. In art, realism attempts to reveal realistic features in the artifacts, but this have been manifested in deferent ways at different times.  The term realism as used in describing the work of art has often attempt to reveal the ugly art objects as opposed to the beauty objects on the way they are presented. Although, it is frequently used to describe scenes of humble life and the way artistic present different artistic features in the current society  (Meecham and Julie 2004, 121). However, unlike realism, naturalism focuses on the new styles and logical expressions of art features in the unique styles from that of the old ones. This term was implemented by Emilie Zola who was seeking to strike the platform by convincing the society about getting something, which is new and modern in invention. Naturalism in art violates the traditional aspects and focuses on producing artistic features which are natural.

However, these arts critique the direction of a Modernist America, in terms of what has been called Anti-Modernism. The anti-modernist attempts to critique these arts by arguing that they are confusion of art materials. This is because people in the current society no longer know the way of distinguishing the cosmic connotation of wood, iron or other aspects of art features because they do not understand the qualities of colors or their forms.  For instance, stone has in its common been identified with iron as being cold and also implacable, whereas wood described as warmly and kindly. In the neutralism, this approach have been criticized and prejudiced as an approach that can reduce art simply and solely to imitate nature. However, the observation of nature may well coincide with cultural or traditional artifacts or symbolical aspects as proved by the traditional artifacts such as the Egypt Pyramids, ancient mosques and religious building; thus objects of such kind are fundamentally intellectual.

Moreover, the above issues continue to present themselves in the current society because many of the spiritual symbolism are created in a naturalistic form and the notability of their styles purely relies on psychic artistic resources. For instance, the agreement of a picture is only lawful in case it does not abolish the artwork and outward model. Many people in the current society attempts to produce artifacts which are more naturalistic than realistic. The legitimate of the normative art in the current society attempt to combine the intellectual observation of nature with spiritual intention and physical nature depending on the symbolism nature of the work. For instance, the Michelangelo artistic works were well praised because these artistic features had great appearance and he employed unique styles of creating art paintings and architectures. However, many of the modern artists have attempted to employ traditional artwork styles, but incorporating them with the modern styles in order to make them superior.  

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Transnational Terrorist Organization

Al Qaeda is one of the wells known transnational terrorist organizations established by Osama bin Laden during the year 1988.  The 9/11 radical attack in the US created a threat to the Americans and many nations across the globe. Since this attack, they have been frequent cases of deadly and terrorism across the globe, which are committed by varied terrorist groups. The rebel activities were dynamic during the 1970s to 1980s because of political ideologies. Al Qaeda group has no clear home base, but it maintains cells in diverse nations in Middle East, South East Asia and Europe. Al Qaeda operated military camps in Afghanistan from the year 19996 to 2001. The subsequent trooping that was made by the Taliban regime eliminated this group after the U.S attack. The leadership structure of the terrorist group remained in Afghanistan, and some of them moved to the neighboring country in Pakistan due to the American invasion in 2001. The Al Qaeda terrorist organization has been a threat to the US and many nations. This terrorist group became a considerable speculation subject across the globe; hence the federal government under the current USA president Barrack Obama made significant efforts until the Al Qaeda leader, Osama Bin Laden was killed.
              The Al Qaeda terrorist group is well recognized as a global militant Islamist group, and it can be traced back to the Soviet War, which emerged as political issues in Afghanistan. The Al Qaeda group demands the Muslim community to support their ideological beliefs, and it has made numerous attacks to Christian communities. It has also attacked many civilians and the military groups in many nations across the globe. For instance, the 9/11 attack that contributed to loss of lives and properties, as well as the 2002 bombing in Bali was due to the Al Qaeda terrorist activities. This attacks awakened the US government; thus they responded to the 9/11 attacks and made significant efforts of fighting terrorism in the state. The government also implemented policies that aimed towards improving the security of the homeland. The USA government launched the War against terror, and they culminated the leaders of this terrorist group after they killed their leader, Osama bin Laden.
             Daase (2010) argues that terrorist and varied organized crimes across the globe are becoming highly lethal, and many of them occur due to clear political issues. Many politicians have tried to regulate their attacks in order to create attention for their cause and alienate public political support. Others terrorists are religious motivated such as Al Qaida, which is believed to have attacked the U.S Embassies in Africa (Sokullu-Akinci, 2006). This terrorist group lacked a concrete political objective but rather decided to punish their enemies through mass killing of many people. They used suicide bombings and other bombs that created a lot of destruction to business buildings and killed many people mercilessly.
             The shift in transnational organized crimes has significantly created a change on the way some of the international terrorist groups are organized.  This is because of the ideological or religious beliefs that lack clear political agenda.  The Al Qaeda is among these groups, which lack political agenda; thus relies on loose affiliations with the narrow-minded groups from diverse nations to offer them support on terror against the United States. AL Qaeda, which is among these terrorist groups, have made significant efforts of pursuing their own terrorist campaign; thus they call varied militant organizations, which share some common ideological beliefs to offer them support of conducting violent campaigns against the US government.  Sokullu-Akinci (2006) reveals that the loosely affiliated terrorism groups are difficult to predict, and many of them rely on numerous sources for logistical support for criminal activities. They employ Internet for communicating about criminal activities, but the federal government has made significant efforts to fight terrorism across the globe.

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Modernity Versus Postmodernity

The history of structural design has evolved for the past decades; thus the 20th century marked the beginning of the modern building designs some of which have the construction shapes of postmodern features while others different. The evolution of modern concrete and certain other building technologies have contributed to varied changes; thus design building has been and continues to be practiced in a more or less similar form in many states globally. Modernism architectures have become more coherent, a structured field containing a variety of equivalent strains and more pluralistic array of formal practices. Among the modern building design of the 20th century includes the MNCARS (Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia), the Sistine chapel, St Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney, which is a revival of gothic architecture, mosques, parliamentary building and many others. The idea of the avant-garde is considered as the hallmark and the beginning for novelty, which was distinctive from postmodernism architecture. The avant-garde comprehends itself as attacking indefinite territory, exposing itself to the threats of sudden, shocking encounters; conquering and as yet unoccupied future; thus the avant-garde must find away in a scene into which no one seems to have yet ventured.

Sistine Chapel
    One of the structural buildings of the 20th century is Sistine chapel, which is among the best and advanced acknowledged structural buildings for the apostolic fortress. This Sistine chapel building is one of the famous architectures that have similar designs of the postmodernism era. The Sistine chapel was established by Pope Sixtus in the Vatican municipality instantaneously after the completion of Saint Peters Basilica (Raizman, 2011, p. 56). The structural building was further improved during the time of Pope Julius II; thus the upper parts of the ceiling were painted using a painting style used by Michelangelo in the mid 1508 to 1512. The tapestries, which is on the lower part of the building has painting designs of postmodernism era; thus the paintings makes up the greatest picturesque design of the renaissance. Some of the painting styles employed by Michelangelo, which are on the ceiling, are among the utmost and notable works of the modern creative style ever created (Norberg-Schulz, 2000, p. 81).  The frescoes of the Sistine chapel, which are mainly on the upper parts of the buildings especially on the ceiling and accompanying lunettes by Michelangelo, have been the issue for varied aspect of refurbishments.
Sistine chapel has created spontaneous and shocking encounters to most people because of varied features and paintings, as well as, decorations of the buildings. The mystery that was gathered to reveal the contemporary issue was at formerly viewed as timely and timeless. For the aspect of timely, scholars explain that the faithful have higher complexity in accomplishing prayerful reminiscence and a sense of the existence of God. This is seen as a complex issue and a predicament that surrounds the holy or sacred structural designs. For the case of timeless, God never ceased to call humanity to himself; thus he interceded through human history. There are varied realistic and grounded guiding doctrines that reflects upon the concerning aspect of vocation and mission of the structural designers in the church history. The sacred or holy scripture confirms that the purpose of architects and artists arose from the very aspect of God’s plan during the creation of the world; therefore, scholars  beliefs that from the very beginning, the talents of architectures and artists have been shaped through a distinctive relation to the plan of God. From the sacred scriptures, God is seen as the divine architect and the first mission of God was to create a suitable place for man to dwell in or live and that was the Garden of Eden.  Therefore, Sistine chapel is one of the sacred architectures that were built with an aim of fulfilling the demanding aspect of God.
The avant-garde of Sistine chapel creates spaces that enhance sensual experiences because the building has a gothic style structure of the medieval era. Sistine chapel building is one of the finest examples of gothic revival architectures; thus it was created for the purpose of holding daily services including Easter services, prayer meetings, bible studies, choral services and many other religious functions. This building is of national significance to the Italian people and it is among the best known chapels of the apostolic palaces. The building is famous because of its structural design and the inclusion of the decorations and paintings by renaissance artists including Domenico Ghirlandaio, Michelangelo and many others. The works of the avant-garde and other artists are considered as the ultimate achievements of western painting styles. The rising of modernism was sometimes linked with past and cultural aspects but it is still being discussed. Modernism is perceived as an event itself and is positioned as a present-day process in the lives of people. Most of modern architectures are connected with traditional techniques and beliefs of the earlier artists and this was the first attraction and appealing designs of the commencement of modernism. Modernism is perceived as a totality of novelties but other scholars perceive it as the degradation of classic life style. Many people thought that modernism was degradation of traditional values and classical accumulation but is generated or created a revolutionary against unacceptable institutions and approaches employed.  Structural designs of modernism have even become a buoyant way of reformists and innovators in the contemporary epoch.
Sklair argues that the shocking innovation should be both clear and uncomplicated; thus this is the dilemma that every artist has to tackle to grow with the flow as advocated by the trans-avant-garde and apostles of postmodernism (Sklair, 2010, p. 397). The advocates of postmodernism mainly targeted those contentedly over-institutionalized theorists and avant-garde whose work provides postmodernism a shocking reputation. Leach strictly concludes that “the prostitution of architecture in postmodern buildings, the prostitution of art in trans-avant-garde painting, and the virtual ethical and aesthetic abdication of postmodernist thought leaves a kind of black stain upon history (Leach, 1997, p. 78). In case avant-garde trends may be differentiated from contemporary typical trends in terms of what Habermas defined as their characteristic aspiration toward “effects which could be fully obtained only with a changed technical standard, that is to say, in a new art form”; therefore, electro-acoustic literature might be defined as an avant-garde postmodernism (Habermas, 2000, p. 91).
The theoretical and historical work of modernism in architecture, from its precursors or initial codification through its contemporary manifestations views modernism as having been and being more complex, flexible and plurified than it has been treated (Habermas, 2000, p. 51). Modernism has been called into question of the soulless container architecture; thus Habermas detects two varied strains that appear as polar opposites but share a common platform in their opposition to postmodernism. Leach attempted to illustrate the two fundamentally varied strains of this questioning pact as a postmodernism of reaction and a postmodernism of resistance (Leach, 1997, p. 4). The former seeks expatriate in the form of ancient times and the latter remains committed to the innovative projects and also seeks to amend it through a critical reassessment process (Leach, 1997, p. 5).

The Sofia Building
Another building is the MNCARS or the Sofia building, which is one the modern buildings of the 20th century. MNCARS is ranked among the 15th leading architectures of the 20th century across the globe. MNCARS is one of the 20th century national museum art located in Madrid, Spain and the museum art was named after death of Queen Sofia of Spain; thus it is also known as merely the Sofia. The architecture is mainly dedicated to the Spanish art and it includes two utmost 20th century master including the Salvador Dali and Pablo Picasso. The most prominent masterpieces within the museum art is painting Guernica of Picasso; thus the museum provides a mixture of varied national and international exhibitions in its numerous galleries.
The concept of modernism is viewed as the central theme and it started gaining popularity after the WWW II and most of the modern structural designs were adopted by numerous influential avant-garde and architectural educators. Most of the contemporary structural designs are distinguished by nonexistence of applied decorations and generalization of form; thus modernism is an overarching progress. Earlier modern structural designs began during the awake of 20th century with efforts for reconciling the philosophy underlying structural designs. This took place because of rapid technological advancement and increased modernization in the society, as well as, increased knowledge. Modernism finally generated reactions and notably postmodernism that attempted to preserve pre-modern elements but neo-modernism emerged as a reaction to postmodernism (Goldhagen and Legault, 2000, p. 123).
In addition, the modern movement, which began during the turn of the 20th century, marked the beginning of new structural designs that became common in the contemporary society. This was also the first time when the terminology of avant-garde, which the movement branded until the term modernism prevailed, became commonly used in the informative work of earlier artists (Habermas, 2000, p. 89). Modernism entered a popular culture and increased urbanization aided by rapid technological advancement contributed to varied changes in many structural designs. One of the most notable changes in the modernism era was the adoption of new technologies in architectural work; thus those who involved in modern architecture had pragmatic views arguing that new technology rendered old styles of structural designs obsolete (Castello and Rands, 2010, p. 61).
The MNCARS structural design has created sudden and shocking encounters in varied ways. One of the sudden and shocking encounters is the dilemmas which results from the historical avant-gardes especially the way the museum art is designed. The museum was created with an aim of attracting people from varied social backgrounds across the globe; thus it has been one of the main sources for income generation in Spain. The avant-gardes were constitutionally against museums; thus they felt a need to suspend this art into its independent decree. However, the excellent collection artistic features in the galley have become the centre of attraction for many tourists. Despite this, the modern structural buildings have its roots in late 19th century construction management practices. The art galleys allegedly have new structural designs, which are perceived as having been introduced in Spain into the late 1970s. The notion of structural designs in the 20th century as written by art historians attributes to normative status to structural designs of modernism era.
Goldhagen (2005, p. 154) argues that industrial revolution has contributed to varied changes including new architecture or structural designs across the globe. The concept of modern art has contributed to increased debates because of its impacts; thus the society approach modernism through varied dimensions. Modernism is a based on the movement of enlightenment, which has contributed to varied alterations in many facets in the contemporary world. The notion of modernization as being chiefly a concept of time has been conveyed out against the past and ancient times. Modernism can be defined as a post-traditional and post-medieval chronological era, which its foundation can be based on industrialization process, feudalism, capitalism or entrepreneurship and secularization (Goldhagen, 2005, p. 147). The mentality of modernization can be attributed to secularism but its inventive factor is the sense of unrepeatable time and the perception of modernism can be dated back to Christian middle ages. Modernity is linked to modernism, which includes fundamental alterations in terms of structural designs, daily life and some of the dissimilarities in real sense of theories and historicity. Many innovations such as Sistine chapel, Saint Andrew cathedral and many other structural designs arose as a consequence of modernism. This period is defined as the result of varied alterations and innovations, but the era is reorganized as postmodernism, which is still being discussed by many scholars.
Additionally, the phenomenon of postmodernism have attempted to deal with varied cultural discipline such as architecture, history and arts but it can be assumed that it seems like a shapeless entity. This is because it has varied meanings for diverse cultures but postmodernism rebuts methodological reconciliations and rejects epistemological assumptions. Postmodernism can be equated to a summit of evolution period in which there is austerely no other option for deficiencies occurred by loss of functionality and ideology of modernism in philosophy, social and cultural history (Mirzoeff, 2002, p. 69). Postmodernism is not a movement that is directed by rules which contains principles with certain limits in the sense that is expresses the transition period but it stands against principled attitude and practices of modernism. Although the first effects of postmodernism emerged in the United States, the French theorists have been the pioneers who specified the speculative, hypothetical and significance of postmodernism.
The MNCARS structural design has varied meaning but the building may lend a sense of identity to what is being enclosed within its boundaries. The structural wall of the building creates a sense of exclusion that is both physical and social; thus MNCARS is viewed as the cultural holdings but in such a way that allows contemplation and also holds temporary exhibitions of modern art. Robbers, Papapetros, Boyer, Neumann and Princeton University (2012, p. 62) argue that the modern century has witnessed many social and cultural movements, as well as, varied progresses in technology. The MNCARS building is a centre for cultural aspects because it has varied and excellent collections of the 20th century masterpiece within the museum. Although the building has a design of modernism structure, some of its features date back to postmodern era; thus an argument that modern structural designs are just a refurbishment or the novelty of the postmodernism structural designs.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the avant-garde comprehends itself as attacking indefinite territory, exposing itself to the threats of sudden, shocking encounters; conquering and as yet unoccupied future; thus the avant-garde must find away in a scene into which no one seems to have yet ventured. The modern movement, which began during the turn of the 20th century, marked the beginning of new structural designs that became common in the contemporary society. One of the structural buildings of the 20th century is Sistine chapel, which is among the best and advanced acknowledged structural buildings for the apostolic fortress. Sistine chapel building is one of the finest examples of gothic revival architectures; thus it was created for the purpose of holding daily services including prayer meetings, bible studies and many other religious functions. Sistine chapel has created spontaneous and shocking encounters to most people because of varied features and paintings, as well as, decorations of the buildings. Another building is the MNCARS or the Sofia building, which is one the modern buildings of the 20th century. The MNCARS structural design has created shocking encounters and one of them is the dilemmas which resulted from the historical avant-gardes especially the way the museum art is designed. However, both structural designs have varied meanings and they have become the centre for tourism and other varied activities.

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Power, Security and Modern Life

The Main Features of Foucault's Account of 'Governmentality’
    The concept of governmentality was first established by a French historian and social philosopher known as Michel Foucault (Bratich, Packer and McCarthy, 2003, p. 23). Governmentality is understood from varied perspectives and one of them being the way in which the government attempts to produce citizens who best suits in fulfilling governmental policies, or it can be understood as the organised practices through which subjects are governed.  Foucault defined governmentality as the art of government in a wide sense such as the idea of government, which is not limited to state politics alone but include a variety of control techniques, as well as, applies a variety of objects from one’s control of self to political control of citizens. The studies in governmentality constitute a growing body of work but this work cannot be characterised as unitary. The field of governmentality does not seek to apply the political concept and social phenomena, but questions the very limits of, and features of governmentality (Dean, 2009, p. 57). Quite number of emerging literature about governmentality studies have already matured to the point where clear differences in position are beginning to be drawn. This paper attempts to offer the main features of Foucault’s account of governmentality.
    Foucault characterizes governmentality as the art of power and this is revealed in his analytical theoretical account of power. The theories of Foucault mostly concentrated on the connection between power and knowledge and the way they are used as a form of social control through community structure (Foucault, Burchell, Gordon and Miller, 1991, p. 56). In his middle age of work, Foucault kept repeatedly framing his work as an examination of the relations between knowledge, power and human subject. Foucault is often seen as having generated a new theory of power but most of his theories are puzzling (Hindess, 1996, p. 65). For example, Foucault proclaimed that power is everywhere and but on the same time, he argued that such power does not exist despite spending most of his time analyzing the phenomenon. The characters of Foucault on the power theory can essentially offer some captivating points of departure for conceptualisation of participation (Foucault, 1980, 42). The views of Foucault about power have been somewhat overlooked but this part has the potential to offer a subtle and insightful perspective in a wider social structure.
    Most commentators of Foucault’s theory of power characterize this power as the form of self-government, structuring and shaping the field of possible action to subjects. The power concept as a guidance does not exclude consensual forms or the recourse to violence but it signifies the coercion or consensus, which are reformulated as means of government among others (Foucault et-al, 1991, p. 87). As a result, the governmentality concept represents a theoretical move beyond the problematic of consensus; therefore, this power does not sought or struggle or cause brutality but rather sought the singular mode of achievement, which is government. According to Bratich, Packer and McCarthy (2003, p. 45), the work of Foucault does not involve theorizations of power based upon a series of historical interrogations; this it is difficult to offer historical account on the way Foucault theorises power. This is because Foucault strongly rejects that the idea that human and social phenomena have significant, unchanging essences; thus he resist defining power in a metaphysical ways arguing that power is assumed to exist universally in a concentrated or diffuse form. According to the Foucault, power exist only when it is put into action; thus he emphasises that power is not a foundation, a structure nor it is not a certain strength  but a name, which one attributes to a multifaceted strategic circumstances in a particular society (Foucault et-al, 1991, p. 71).
    Additionally, Larner and Walters argue that power is not a universal or a metaphysical principle that applies to all things across space and time; however, both governmental power and sovereign power are relational phenomena that have spatially specific idioms (Larner and Walters, 2013, p. 78). The idioms of power are not mutually exclusive; thus the generative principle of formation governing any idiom of power must be investigated (Dean, 2009, p. 76). Therefore, the argument behind this is that something may happen such as security and war issues; thus the need of biopower will become the material for strategising of power relations. The biopolitical forms are a regime based upon the promotion of species life; thus liberalism becomes highly implicated issue of security and war (Larner and Walters, 2013, p. 78). Therefore, it becomes apparent that global governmentality is an extraordinary complex of power.
One of the fundamental aspects of Foucault’s account of governmentality is the notion of political knowledge. The theory of Foucault addressed the relationship between power and knowledge and the way they are used as a form of social interaction; therefore, the governmentality does not contrast politics and knowledge but articulates a political knowledge (Foucault, 1980, p. 83).  Foucault does not pose the question of the relation between rationalities and practices but his main problem is not to investigate in case practices conform to rationalities but to discover the kind of rationality they are using (Foucault, 1980, p. 32). For Foucault, the art of government represented a significant aspect with sovereignty; thus the governmentality was seen as a positive form of power. However, the approach of Foucault is problematical; thus it poses questions of how the government rather than its legitimation attempts to articulate a kind of prudence, which was inherent to the art of government (Peters, 2001, p. 20).
    Another significant feature of governmentality is the sovereignty, which Foucault viewed as the capacity for self control and this is connected to forms of political and economic development (Foucault et-al, 1991, p. 79). Governmentality was understood as the art of government; therefore, this type of government sought to introduce the economy, which is visualized as the right administration but this concept at first applied to domestic government into political practice (Foucault et-al, 1991, p. 80). For Foucault, this concern which developed more fully in earlier 18th century marked the beginning of the conceptual shift towards the contemporary use of the word economy by designating an autonomous region of social relations (Brockling, Krasmann and Lemke, 2011, p. 91). The art of government aspect was opposed to the sovereignty theory because it did not appeal to law or the obligation of rules but rather focused on the nature of things. This concept meant that the needs of government were multiple and were also found in the objects of government. 
The idea of governmentality is connected to the model of biopower, which refers to the knowledge of power. The technology of power is seen as a way of managing people as a group; thus the unique feature of this political knowledge is that it allows for the total control of citizens (Hindess, 1996, p. 145). The biopower literally means having power over populations and it is a method for achieving the subjugations of bodies and the control of citizens (Foucault et-al, 1991, p. 61). The concept of governmentality is linked to the allied ideas of biopower and mechanisms of security; thus it is significant to reflect on a greater detail the meaning of governmentality. Whitehead (2011, p. 56) argues that the relationship between biopower and governmentality are conceptually and historically multifaceted.  Both governmentality and biopower appear to reveal large geo-historical modification in the nature and intent of power; thus it is unwise to say that the rise of governmental forms contributed to the emergence of biopower and vice versa (Brockling, Krasmann and Lemke, 2011, p. 56).
In addition, the aspect of discipline and punish led to a wide range of problematic issue concerning the character of biopower. Foucault detected between security, population and government; thus the aspect of discipline and power became the interested part in the military site. Foucault argued against the perception about prison that this is one of the consisted forms of punishment mainly because of humanitarian concern of reformists (Foucault et-al, 1991, p. 71). Foucault traced the civilizing shift that contributed to the governance of prison by focusing on the questions of power. Prison became a form of discipline and it was used as a new form of technological power. In the later work, Foucault admitted that he was somewhat eager to determine the way disciplinary power conditions in the society could have been carried out to promote security; thus he developed his earlier ideas about discipline and punishment. The main ideas about discipline and punish were later categorized in different groups including torture, discipline, punishment and prison (Miller, 2000, p. 65).
The work of Foucault is characterized by some sort of legitimate struggle with Marx, and this struggle is one of its productivity.  According to Inda (2005, p. 37), Foucault moved in his theoretical development from a rapture with Marx as a theory of tactical alliance. The use of some concepts was compatible with that of Marx and one of them is the genealogy of governmentality. The work of Foucault after discipline and punish is characterised by two seemingly disparate projects  and one of them was his interest in political rationalities and the pedigree of the state where Foucault explored a series of articles, interviews and lectures (Foucault, 1980, p. 37). The other one was the concentration on ethical questions and the pedigree of the subject, which is focused in the projects of history on sexuality. However, the missing link among the two projects of interest is the problem of government; thus, Foucault links the two research interests and uses them to analyze the coactions between domination technologies, self technologies, the constitution of the subject and the formation of the state.
In conclusion, the research paper attempted to offer the main features of Foucault’s account of governmentality. Foucault characterizes governmentality as the art of power and this is revealed in his analytical theoretical account of power. Some of the fundamental aspects of Foucault’s account of governmentality are the notion of political knowledge, power, and sovereignty but the art of government aspect was opposed to the sovereignty theory. This is because it did not appeal to law or the obligation of rules but rather focused on the nature of things. The work of Foucault is also characterized by some sort of legitimate struggle with Marx, and this struggle is one of its productivity. Therefore, the studies in governmentality constitute a growing body of work but this work cannot be characterised as unitary body.

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President Eisenhower and Eisenhower Doctrine (1953-1961)

Introduction
Dwight Eisenhower was the 34th Amercian leader who rose into power in 1953 and ruled until 1961. Eisenhower was born in October 1890 in Texas and he trained as a U.S military; thus he worked unremittingly to ease the tensions of the Cold War during his years of reign. Eisenhower Doctrine is a dialogue that was presented during the U.S assembly by President Eisenhower on January 1957 (Stookey, 2000). This was a special message that was presented during the congress that aimed to solve the issues about the situation in the Middle East. Under this doctrine, a nation could request the American state for economic assistance or any aid from the United States military forces in case a country was threatened by armed aggression from another nation. Eisenhower Doctrine focused on the issue of war that threatened the Soviet Union; thus President Eisenhower felt that a strong position was necessary to reduce the complicated nature of the situation. This is because Abdel Nasser had already taken the position of Egypt and was rapidly creating a power base; hence used it to play the Americans and the Soviet Union against each other. Therefore, the essay focuses on the President Eisenhower and his doctrine of using nukes, as well as, spooks in preventing communists and other radical takeovers.

Summary of the Situation that Required U.S Diplomatic Efforts
The situation that required U.S diplomatic efforts was foreign affairs and this was because of the demand by Soviet Union that NATO should withdrawal its military forces from East. The American nation has never had a better equipped leader in the area of foreign affairs than that of President Eisenhower (Stookey, 2000). Foreign affairs especially the issues of war were one of the aspects that required diplomatic efforts but President Eisenhower had significant experience on the foreign affairs. This is because Eisenhower had already been in the international arena for many decades and he knew many world leaders, as well as, charted with the military strategy of American across the globe. Given the complex issues and challenges that the president faced, he applied his diplomatic efforts to end the Cold War. When the president rose into power, the U.S was in amidst of stalemated and aggravated war in Korea. America was faced with a pitiless, implacable and a powerful Soviet enemy that openly sought world supremacy.
When Dwight Eisenhower rose into power, he was well prepared when it came to matters of foreign affairs. This is because Eisenhower associated with many world leaders and charted with varied American military strategies across the globe. Eisenhower employed an effective diplomatic approach and put more diplomatic efforts on war situations. This is because he did not want to let another communist nation to take over the world. The system of Eisenhower to the global associations was based on two foremost stanch diplomatic ideologies. One of them was the staunch anticommunist and this approach helped him to defeat the Nazis because Eisenhower was not ready to allow any of totalitarianism across the globe. Another approach was the recognition of the limits of the military power; thus the state was ready to spend their wealth in military because of the need to maintain peace across the globe.
Moreover, Eisenhower also knew that the nation was already spending a lot of money on military defense, which could have contributed to bankrupt in the country. Therefore, Eisenhower worked together with John Foster who was the state secretary and they came up with new policy of maintaining the security of the nation. Eisenhower put diplomatic efforts on national security; thus the National Security Policy of the U.S was implemented (Stookey, 2000).  The major aim was to deter communist aggression by relying on nuclear weapons or in case of necessity to fight in a war. The aim of participating in war was to maintain peace and reduce the economic consequences that could arise due to war issues. Another aspect was to maintain the vitality of the United States economy while building adequate strategies and finding means of persecuting the Cold War.

The Doctrine That the President Eisenhower Followed
Eisenhower followed a conservative domestic policy; thus his campaign was noted for the simple but effective slogan of “I like Ike” and this is what contributed to his nickname of Ike (Marcus and Sollors, 2009).  Ike used this slogan during his campaign where he attended the crusade against the Truman administration policies regarding Korea, Communism and Corruption (Ellis, 2009). President Eisenhower also promised during his campaign that he will go to Korea himself and end the war; thus he promised to uphold a strong NATO pledge against Communism, as well as, a corruption-free economical administration at home (Stookey, 2000). Eisenhower preached a policy of vibrant conservatism and continued with the main New Deal programs throughout his presidency, which is still in action especially the Social Security Policy. Eisenhower expanded its programs and chose a new cabinet agency that focused on the health, education and wellbeing of the state while extended the benefits to many million workers in the state Lukes, 2012).
Moreover, President Eisenhower announced the Eisenhower Doctrine in 1957, which required the U.S to offer military and economic assistance to the Middle East countries. The Eisenhower Doctrine was declared during the assembly and this dogma aimed to shield the American oil interests in the Middle East. The doctrine also demonstrated the growing significant of oil in the American foreign policy decision making (Ellis, 2009). In 1958, Eisenhower ordered the U.S marines into Lebanon and he also brought new changes in the U.S national security policy. One of the elements under the Eisenhower was maintaining the economy of the U.S while building sufficient military power to prosecute the Cold War and relying on the nuclear weapons to deter communist aggressions (Lansford, 2007). The origin of Suez crisis that resulted in 1956 contributed to difficulties of dealing with president Nasser of Egypt and the western supremacy. President Nasser followed an independent and provocative way of dealing with powers; thus Eisenhower administration made significant efforts to end Middle East rivalry.

Effects of Diplomatic efforts for the U.S and other Countries
Eisenhower’s diplomatic efforts have contributed to varied aspects not only in the U.S state but also to other countries. One of the effects of diplomatic efforts was to slow down the economic recession in American and many other countries. The war crisis contributed to increased economic depression, but President Eisenhower made significant efforts of fighting war in order to maintain peace. The president never wanted totalitarianism because this was linked with economic problems; thus his diplomatic efforts on foreign affairs and war control contributed to the rapid economic expansion in 1950s. Another effect is the reduction of unemployment level and inflation was generally less that 2 percent. Although conformists put more pressure to Ike to reduce taxes, the president offered a higher priority of balancing the financial plan; thus contributing to a fair economic success. Moreover, the wage earners enjoyed a prosperous decade because personal income level rose by 45 percent (Lukes, 2012). This enabled many families to purchase commodities and new houses at affordable prices and consumers also benefited from the income because they were able to purchase new commodities effectively.
In addition the poverty rate and racial discrimination decreased during the presidential regime of Eisenhower. Although one out of five American citizens lived under poverty, poverty level declined tremendously across the states.  For instance, in Northern parts of America faced problems of poverty issues because of the increased immigrants from the South to cities such as Detroit, Chicago and many others. This is because of the new farm machines, which were implemented; hence they replaced employment opportunities; hence, rendered many people jobless. However, in 1960s, President Eisenhower managed to reduce poverty issues and this is because he emphasized on the economic security and introduced new doctrines that contributed to varied changes across the globe. Lastly, President Eisenhower addressed the issue of racial discrimination; thus policies were introduced that aimed to promote unity among diverse ethnicity or cultural groups.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the Eisenhower doctrine contributed to diverse benefits one of them being the increased economic advancements. The Eisenhower doctrine, which was followed by the New Deal policy, benefited many countries both socially, economically and politically. New changes resulted and new policies were implemented such as the national security policy, which contributed to varied social, as well as, economic benefits in many states. There was a growing interest on cultural differences; thus policies were implemented that benefited different cultures both in the Arab world and the Americans. However, the issues or problems with this doctrines was that the Arab leaders saw the doctrine as an opportunity for advancing unnecessary local agendas in the Arab world. The doctrine also unconditionally contributed to political costs and political weaknesses in the U.S states.

References
Ellis, S. (2009). Historical dictionary of Anglo-American relations. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow
 Press.
Lansford, T. (2007). Historical dictionary of U.S. diplomacy since the Cold War. Lanham, MD:
 Scarecrow Press.
Lukes, I. (2012). On the edge of the Cold War: American diplomats and spies in postwar
 Prague. New York: Oxford University Press.
Marcus, G., & Sollors, W. (2009). A new literary history of America. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap
 Press of Harvard University Press.
Stookey, R. W. (February 01, 2000). The United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, 1945-1956:
Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War Peter L. Hahn. Pacific Historical Review, 62, 1, 118-119.

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Declaration of Independence

Introduction
Declaration of independence is regarded as the founding document of the American History.  The document has been taken in as one of the most significant documents ever presented in the USA history.
On June 7th, 1776, following the directions of the Virginia Convention, Richard Henry Lee, came up with a resolution during the Continental Congress. Richard introduced the declaration that the United Colonies should be independent and free states. (Conlin 139)

Richard further suggested that their loyalty to the British Crown must be totally resolved. Continental Congress adopted Richard’s resolution and assigned a committee to change the resolution into a declaration of independence. John Adams became in charge, and without delay, he assigned Jefferson to write down the draft. Jefferson drafted the letter within a single day. The other members in the committee who helped Jefferson include; Robert Livingstone, John Adams, Roger Sherman and Benjamin Franklin.

The declaration of independence was presented in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania during the Continental Congress. It was endorsed with a few slight amendments. When changes were made to the declaration, Jefferson was decisive of changes made to the document, particularly the exclusion of a long clause that endorsed accountability of the slave trade to the King of British (King George III). The declaration had 56 signers and John Hancock’s sign was the first.

Reason of the Declaration of Independence
The major reason of America’s declaration of independence was to make clear to the foreign nation why the colonies had preferred to split themselves from Great Britain. The radical war had already started, and numerous main battles had already occurred. The ties between the American colonies and England had already been lost. The American colonies established their own army, currency, and congress and post office. Jefferson’s reason was to put before mankind the general wisdom of the subject and grant a reason for the independent stand that the Americans were forced to take. (Conlin 140)

In the Declaration of independence, Thomas Jefferson clarified that a body of the populace has a right to amend governments if the government turned out to be unfair and controlling (oppressive). Jefferson also went further to explain that governments become unsuccessful when they no longer have the approval to be ruled.

The other reasons of the announcement of independence include; encourage foreign nations to assist them, getting unwilling colonists on board, expounding the colonists’ place on the role of the government and list the colonists’ complaints against King George III. The Americans were not pleased with the tax imposed on them by the Government of Britain. The declaration of independence was to point out the things for the entire world to see. Some of the grievances raised include; King George III passed laws making it harder for the populace to immigrate thus, making it hard and expensive for people to get land. Jefferson put their case for independence in provisions of the rights of all individuals. Jefferson pointed out that all human beings are created equal, and God gave them the right to liberty, Life and the search of Happiness. (Joseph R. Conlin 141)
Significance of Declaration of Independence in American
The significance of the declaration of independence in the American History announced the beginning of a new nation. It also lays down an approach to human freedom.  It rested not upon meticulous allegations but upon a broad base of individual liberty that could control general hold up throughout America.  Americans still kept a comprehensive idea of themselves as people made up of individuals able of self-government. The urge to come up with the document was to give Americans identity as a society and a nation.

Conclusion
The people of the colonies and the representatives of the USA had seen existing conditions that needed a change in the government policy and structure. The declaration of independence informed all the people of their new nation and the 13 united colonies liberated from the rule of the British. The declaration furthermore serves to plea the people of the entire world to be mindful of the reason why the partition was justified. The independent states maintain the power to impose war, make peace, conduct trade, make treaties with foreign nations and do everything that is right just like any other independent state does.

Works Cited
Conlin, Joseph R. The American Past. Ninth Edition: A Survey of American History. Canada;       
Cengage Learning Products, 2011. Print
Jefferson, Thomas, and Sam Fink. The Declaration of Independence. New York: Scholastic
Reference, 2002. Print.
Armitage, David. The Declaration of Independence: A Global History. Cambridge, Mass:
Harvard University Press, 2007. Print.
Mazer, Anne. The Declaration of Independence. New York: Scholastic Inc, 2000. Print

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The Realms of Africa

Introduction

A geographic realm is the essential spatial element in world regionalization system. Every realm is distinct in the provision of a combination of its whole human geography – a combination of its primary economic, political, cultural, historical and suitable environmental features. It is the biggest rational regions into which a whole world can be divided.

Discussion

The African Realm covers the southern of the Sahara desert which is subjugated by the Negros with moderately prehistoric ways, linguistic variety, which hampers communication by itself and by not having the script. The general public in the sub-Saharan is tribal with animistic gullible religion with extensive witchcraft. 

Sub Saharan region has its own diverse traits. It has different languages and religion beliefs. Religions are confined in nature. They are not prejudiced at the slightest by the two immense all taking on religions specifically Islam and Christianity. The economic activities they have include fishing, hunting and gathering.

Impact of Geography on cultures and future events

Climate changes cause people to migrate to different regions thus make contact with different people with different culture. The interaction will result in others losing their culture and adopting another for them to live together. Settlement patterns also change as people move.

  Impact of European colonization

East Africa entirely is amid those regions of the world which provides the majority of natural resources such as   gold, potash, petroleum and copper. European control in the region resulted in slavery. Enforced manual labor for mining natural resources caused suffering and made them accountable to economic exploitation. The rank, advantage and assets of European colonial ruling were regularly observed and upheld   by the use of policies that desecrated the human rights of the in the colonized regions. Unfair policies subjected populations in colonized countries loss of their lands, assets, religious or cultural identities, and at times still their lives. Africans also learnt the importance of the natural resources such as gold. Gold could be used to make ornaments and Africans had the opportunity to make such things up to now.

Conclusion

Africa has a realm of subsistence farmers. Colonization on Africa resulted in political instability, economic backwardness and social mayhem. Colonials rule tactics; obligation and exploitation of African resources had elongated lasting effects on African economies and societies still after the end of colonialism.

Referees

De, B. H. J., & De, B. H. J. (2010). The world today: Concepts and regions in geography. New York: Wiley.

Norton, W. (2000). Cultural geography: Themes, concepts, analyses. Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press.

De, B. H. J., Muller, P. O., & De, B. H. J. (2007). The world today: Concepts and regions in geography. New York: John Wiley.

De, B. H. J., & Muller, P. O. (2002). Geography: Realms, regions, and concepts. New York: J. Wiley & Sons.

Oliver, R. A. (1997). In the realms of gold: Pioneering in African history. Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press.

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First Total War

Introduction

Total war is a war that gains full support from its country and every individual has a duty t help in the war effort. Both military and civilian resources require gaining full victory. Total wars include wars such as World War I and II.  The first total war happened between 1792 and 1815 i.e. the Napoleonic wars and the French Revolutionary Wars that drained Western Europe. The fight was between France, Russia, Austria, Prussia and Portugal. The result of the wars witnessed the rise and end of Napoleon Bonaparte. France was the country that initiated war in April 1792 and in September 1792; French forces invaded the Prussian-Austrian force which resulted in the occupation of Belgium by the French.

Discussion

The previous quality of the total war has been totally captured by today’s historians. David Bell’s merit in his book “David Bell’s The First Total War” was to restore ferocity to its appropriate place at the center of what was happening in Europe during the 19th century. The author firmly maintains that present behaviors toward total war were brought about during the Napoleonic era. He indicates the characteristics of total war shown i.e. compulsion, unconditional surrender, mobilization of civilians, disregard of war rules and the guerrilla warfare. In contradiction to Wint and alvocoressi, David Bell gives out a compelling and clear account in his introduction including the various meanings that have gathered around the concept of total war.

Bell does a remarkably admirable job in the book by bringing in a connection between history and the present. He also includes the relationship between civilian and soldiers. In Bell’s opinion, total war came up from the view that war should be entirely eradicated. Eradicating war through the total welfare and a new beginning would set in free from war. The principal features brought along by the Napoleonic and Revolutionary wars in the presence of contemporaries were their ferocity and scale. In the 18th century it was believed that making war was a normal thing just like making love. War everywhere was a day to day activity. To be promoted to the chancy rank, war has to assemble a nation’s resources, make use of industrial products and ascertain the enemy as a criminal who is only worth to “extermination” (Danton’s word).

When war worsened, generals took out their professionals for fear of losing their costly services. Civilians could be spared as they received decent treatment and religious conflicts were rare. Bell brings us back to the revolution and its clarion faith in humanity; civilians were separated from the military and as a result it was thought that a super-size disagreement could even bring the war to an end. Bell considers the revolution’s adoption of perpetual warfare to cultural causes in a certain degree than geopolitical account. It accuses few philosophers.

Voltaire regarded warfare as million assassins in uniform while the Enlightment regarded the warfare as fundamental irrational. Bell tells on how Immanuel Kant did not agree with the moral laws in consideration to the inevitability of history.

In the 2nd half of the book it is a dedication to Napoleon, a story that is more familiar to historians. Millions lost their lives as an absolute consequence of this inhuman little genius. Bells depicts that his career ended up to be set in motion by the total war but he in turn got encouraged and magnified to extra ordinary proportions, had its self damnable logic. In response, the bruised German powers were changing the concept of warfare into a superb act of rebirth that remained the same. In the book Bell gives out a brilliant definition of the 1812 withdrawal from Moscow.  (David Bell, 2007)

David Bell argument that the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars that followed should be considered the first total war rather than those that came after is convincing in that the war laid economic, social, Cultural and political problems for many years which is and indication of total war. The war was so violent that it overthrew of the oce-strong and proud monarchy, which was an alarming and shattering blow to European monarchies.

According to David Bell (2007), they took control of larger military forces and it became easy to generate weapons thus equipping a larger percentage of forces. The UK portrayed as one of the biggest single manufacturer of firearms during the period, distributing most of the firearms used by the Coalition powers during the entire conflict. France was the second nation in the produce of firearms, providing for its own immense forces also distributing to the Rhine Confederation. The French also distributed the armaments to other allies. Bell considered this war as the first total war because it occurred in full and at a gruesome extent. The wars should be considered the first total wars as they involved invasion of ideas, nationalist propaganda and war of ideas.

Conclusion

Above all, in the time of Napoleonic and French Revolutionary wars, propaganda was a fundamental aspect to victory. The twentieth century is being seen as the century of total war, but David Bell as a historian argues that the incident had begun earlier during the era of sailing ships, muskets and cannons.  Bell holds campaigns in Spanish cities battlefields and other European battlefields where many people died within a single day. This is the same time which Bell argues that present behavior concerning war being born. This dazzling analytical history depicts war as being conclusive and fought without mercy and limitation.

References

Bell, David Avrom. 2007. The first total war: Napoleon's Europe and the birth of warfare as we know it. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Bell, David Avrom. 2007. The first total war: Napoleon's Europe and the birth of modern warfare. London: Bloomsbury.

Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. 2006. The encyclopedia of the French revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: a political, social, and military history. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.

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The Salem Witchcraft

Introduction
Salem could be considered one of the bigger Massachusetts Bay towns that people first settled in by the Englishmen in the year 1626. Though in the 1630s and with the obtainable land of the coastal family immediately diminished and the longing for bigger and improved farmland, a set of settlers to set up homesteads to the west side of Salem. This region later became Salem village, and by the 1660s incorporated an extensive collection of broadly scattered farms.

Discussion
The Salem witchcraft was one of the most disreputable things of colonial American history which outburst in 1692. In the 16th and 17th century a significant number of people strongly believed in an evil paranormal power. They also believed that some individuals were ‘fifth columnists’ who connected with the evil power. The notion that your apparently usual neighbor was a defector in secret working for the foe was extremely terrifying. Belief in witchcraft was on the way out in the late 17th century, and in England, the final death sentence for witchcraft was in 1684. In America witch trials were rare. Many people in Salem lived in fear as they were afraid of accusations to be witches. They were extremely cautious of what they did or said.

            In Hartford Connecticut, an execution of 3 people happened in 1963. From there on there were no more executions for a quarter of a century. Later on a woman from Boston by the name Mary Glover as a warning to Salem was then executed for allegations made on her for causing 4 kids to be possessed; It was then that a man named Cottosn Mather was involved in the case and later on published a book on it. He was assured of the realism of witchcraft and possessions at Salem. Mather engaged to the events that occurred at Salem he became a church minister and held meetings at the village of Salem.

Villagers who yearned for total church participation and membership in spiritual union at the Lord’s Table will in turn be required to travel many kilometers to the church located at the village of Salem. Though the villagers were excluded from payment of taxes of Salem church, for all other reasons, political and taxing were legally an element of Salem town. The village Salem was later on changed to Danvers after the witch mania had begun not knowing that it would afterwards spread to other communities. In the 1960s, the village of Salem had a population of about 600.at the time most of its citizens wanted to be separate from the village compared to the ones that did not want the latter. This then lead to some violent discrepancies between the two.

The witchcraft outbreak that seemed at first as only localized would further spread fast and by the end of 1692 may people from far communities as far as Salem, Beverly Marblehead, reading, Billerica, Charlestown, Topsfield, Gloucester, and Malden would soon be accused by different ‘afflicted persons’ by the use of witchcraft on them. By the end of 1692, more than 150 people had been tested and sent to jail. Women and men, influential also rich as well as hapless and poor were entangled in frightening legal argument. A number of 50 falsely confessed being witches made a deal with Satan to destruct the people of the town in exchange for favors and remarkable powers.

            In January 1962, the witch hunt begun in Salem, and lead to deaths of more than 20 people. Normally in most parts of Europe, the witches were burned at the stake, but in the north of America and England colonies, the punishment was by hanging. In total 19 people were condemned to death by hanging and an 80 year old man pressed to death.  The old man was allegedly accused of being one of witches and had to either plead guilty or not before any trials could even take place. The man strongly refused to plead to any charges laid upon him.  Four more people died in prison awaiting their trials. An 80 year old man was heaped heavy weights on him to try and get him to talk, but it was all in vain till his last dying breath. He died from torture.

The witch mania then started when two little lads 11 year old Abigail Williams and her cousin Betty Parris who was 9 years tried fortune telling. The two were staying with reverend Samuel Parris who was Betty’s father. During the winter holidays, the two girls and their friends dabbled with fortune telling by means of breaking raw eggs into a glass by trying to interpret shapes formed beneath. Reverend Parris family owned a slave called tituba. The name tituba meant a black slave, and she was Arawak Indian. Though the meaning of her name had no liable evidence to back up that she was indeed black. She was actually native American and believed that she may have been there when the fortune telling was taking place. She suggested having told the girls tales about witchcraft and in turn influenced them.

In January 20th 1692, Doctor William Griggs was called due to the kids having strange fits but the doctor could not enlighten the family on what was happening to them. He is claimed to have started a series of events by claiming the kids were bewitched. Soon after other girls by the names Sarah Churchill aged 20 years, 19 year old mercy Lewis, Elizabeth Hubbard aged 17 years, Elizabeth booth and Susan Sheldon aged 18 years, 16 year old Mary Walcott, and last but not least 20 year old Mary warren begun to have the same behaviors.  Some cases of young girls having strange fits were seen in parts of England, and accusations flew everywhere, but it could not be compared to the utter scale of accusations in Salem.

A woman named Mary Sibley convinced Tituba and her husband john to bake a ‘witch cake’ on February 25th. Apparently the cake was baked from the contents of rye and urine of the two original girls, Abigail Williams and her cousin Betty Parris. During those days, it was believed that if one assumed a person was bewitched they could bake a witch cake and then feed it to the dogs. If the dog, in turn, behaved like the afflicted person, it was seen as evidence that it was indeed witchcraft that was taking place. In this case, the witch cake was given to one of the dogs, and it later on had the same behaviors as the afflicted girls, and that was seen as a symbol that witchcraft was indeed liable.

The girls then pointed out those that were responsible. The blame was laid on three women namely Sarah Osborne, Tituba the slave and Sarah Good and most importantly all of them had low status. If the girls had blamed esteemed members of the society, they may not have been believed. Sarah Good was poor and begged for food; Tituba was looked down upon with her to be a mere slave; and Sarah Osborne was not one of the church goers, for she had not attended in over a year.

The three women were then arrested on the 29th of February 1692 and were examined by Judge John Hawthorne and Judge Jonathan Corwin on March 1st. Miss Good and Miss Osborne denied the charges, but Tituba confessed. Conceivably she felt that if she denied the accusations she would not be believed, after all she was only a slave. Tituba may have also prayed that if she confesses she would be spared. If so she was indeed right. She was sentenced to prison for a while, but no execution followed. When the witch agitation was over Tituba withdrew her confession.

The most dreadful aspects of the witch madness were that if one happened to be accused and confessed their lives would be spared. Nonetheless if, they happened to deny the accusations one was convicted and hanged. In addition if one expressed skepticism concerning the witch trials one was at the time putting themselves in danger since they might be accused of being a witch. Otherwise, the two other women Miss Osborn and Miss Good continued to deny participation in the witchcraft. Sarah Osborne later died in prison while awaiting trial on 10th may.

In the meantime, many people were arrested. To begin with Tituba stated that she had met a “tall man from Boston” in her confessions, which the authorities believed he must have been Satan. She claimed that she was forced to write a book, which had other names written in it which assured the authorities that there must be other witches in the village of Salem apart from those that were initially arrested. Furthermore, Ann Putnam accused a woman named Martha Corey of being a witch in mid-march together with an old woman named Rebecca nurse. Soon many people were arrested on May 27th 1692 and the governor sir William Phips of 1651 to 1695 set up a unique court of terminal and oyer to act on them.

The English settler in the 17th century believed in the existence of the devil and likelihood of witchcraft affecting his day to day life. Witches were mostly thought of as humans and typically women who had accepted to serve the devil. They helped in the destruction of the Christian community and in turn would attain favors and some surprising powers from Satan. In the early 15th century in Europe tens of thousands of the witches were literally put to death once they had been exposed. Witchcraft was believed to be a heresy against the church. One of the heretic’s punishments was done by being burnt at the stake. England had run away from the impact of the continental style of witch hunt that was used. All this was not till the mid 16th century in England that the crime against witchcraft was punishable only by death. Starting then till the end of seventeen century expected 1000 English witches would in turn be found outside hanging.

Conclusion
The witch trials and death sentences which happened were much fueled by politics, economics, family feuds, religion and the fears of the people. The witch trials in Salem were of much significance to the history of America because it demonstrated the wide social formation of the New England which shaped the means of American politics and law.

In 1702, the of Massachusetts turned over the convictions for witchcraft in Salem, and in the year 1711 they allowed reimbursement to the families of the victims bringing the whole remorseful episode to the ending. By the beginning, of the 18th century ideas in witches eventually died out. Finally, a commemoration was held to those who were erroneously executed at Salem.

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Urban Legends

Urban legends are famous stories assumed to be true and are passed from an individual to another through written (such as forwarded email) or oral communication. Normally, the stories concern humorous, outlandish, terrifying, supernatural, or humiliating events. The events in stories constantly seem to occur to somebody other than the story teller. Urban legend depends on flourishes or/and allusion to putatively reliable sources such as; “This actually happened to my mother’s co-worker” or “I heard this from a pal of a pal” to prop its reliability. At times, but not constantly, there is an indirect moral message such as; “Be cautious, or similar embarrassing (or horrible, or inexplicable, or enraging) thing may occur to you.

Urban legends are a kind of myths described as the stories, traditions and beliefs of normal people. So one approach of distinguishing between urban legends and other types of narratives is by probing where they originated from and how they are spread. Legends happen arise impulsively and are hardly ever traceable to a single spot of origin. In addition, they are disseminated by interpersonal communication and just in unusual cases via institutional means or mass media. The stories are likely to change over time as they result to being repeated by a lot of different individuals in various different places. Therefore, no two sides of the stories are ever closely similar; there might be a lot of variations as there are tellers of the story.

In the world of current urban legends, there is typically no generational or geographical gap between the event and teller. The tale is “true”; it really happened, and recently and at all times to someone who is close to the teller. The stories are passed in different versions. Ergo, when a different teller passes along the story, instead of saying, “do you recognize what occurred to a pal of a pal?” it is simpler and looks harmless enough to cut down the introduction. A result of this ordinary tendency to shorten is that credibility and immediacy stay attached to the story, because every individual who hears it trusts the original basis is only two degrees away. This clarifies the reason urban legends are so extensively believed, at times still circling the globe. Urban legends are folk past; or rather their spreading is no mystery.

Adolescents are one main American legend channel, but other paths of spreading are among club members, office workers, also among regional, recreational and religious groups. Some people make a point of getting to know about every recent tale or rumor, and they can cheer up any party, trip or coffee break with the new supposed “news.”

Urban legends of terror finally become ghost tales told around campfires. A number of psychologists deem horrendous urban legends are a let go control of sorts for people to vent common anxieties and fear, while other tales possibly anticipated warning young people away from premarital sex. Urban Legends sometimes speak stridently of society's priorities and concerns. In September, 2001, many tales drifted around on likely future attacks. Campuses, malls and stadiums were feared to be destroyed by terrorists. Peoples’ alarm of being unsafe and the mysterious marked in urban legends since Americans were unsure, scared and confused on what the future would pass on. These stories (urban legends) can notify a lot on what we regard important, what our minds are thinking, and what wobbles us up as a community.

Story telling has been fervor of people all through the past, and urban legends are not anything new. The stories, in logic are social theater, and are there to stay. It might be smart to be more attentive the next instance somebody begins a tale with, "You know what happened to a pal of my pal?" Just like any other story, there is an implication behind every urban legend. They might look silly and frivolous at times, although they typically have a moral, lesson, or part of the past embedded in them that people can be taught from if they look closely. Brunvand affirms that urban legends can simply survive in our society if they contain three crucial features: they should be an interesting or exciting story, they should contain a basis in definite belief, and they should contain some sort of significant message. Lacking these 3 features Brunvand upholds that urban legends would become extinct. Brunvand sums up it fine when he writes, “Urban legends endure by being as “factual” and as lively as the TV (television) evening news.” He as well states that human beings have the want for reports during face-to-face contact. Urban legends have been around for a long time and giving Robin Hood as an example of an Urban Legend of its era. The telling of urban legends is a part of individuals’ nature. Society has told folklore since the start of civilization, and they will keep on telling them eternally.

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